_{Agony in the Garden}

Agony in the Garden is a significant episode in the Passion of Christ. It’s the moment after the Last Supper when Jesus Christ is praying in the Garden of Gethsemane, before his arrest and crucifixion. When depicted it illustrates Christ’s fear and human vulnerability versus divine will. The apostles Peter, James, and John, who accompanied Jesus to the garden, are usually nearby, asleep and unaware of the impending betrayal.

^{Agony in the Garden (c.1465), Giovanni Bellini (c.1435 – 1516), 81x127cm, National Gallery, London.}

_Alabaster

Alabaster is a mineral or rock that is soft and often translucent. It’s typically white, but it can also occur in various shades of yellow, pink, and even rarely in green. Alabaster has been used for centuries in sculpture due to its softness and translucency, which allows for intricate carving and detailing. Alabaster has also been utilized in architecture for decorative purposes. It can be carved into columns, balustrades, and wall panels, adding elegance and beauty to buildings. Its translucent quality also allows for the creation of ornate windows and lighting fixtures, where it can be backlit to create a warm, diffused glow.

^{Alabaster window panels in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c.450), Ravenna, Italy.} 

_{Applied Arts}

Applied Arts encompass creative disciplines that combine design and aesthetics with practical function. Unlike Fine Arts, which are primarily created for aesthetic appreciation and intellectual engagement, Applied Arts are created with a utilitarian purpose in mind, though they still strive to be beautiful and pleasing. This category includes industrial design, fashion, furniture, glassware, ceramics and decorative arts. The focus is on improving the aesthetic appeal of everyday objects.

^{Teaservice (1903), Josef Hoffmann (1870 – 1956) for the Wiener Werkstätte, Silver, ebony, coral and leather, Museum für Angewandte Kunst (MAK), Vienna.}

_{Toegepaste Kunst, Arts Décoratifs, Arti Applicate, Angewandte Kunst, 應用藝術}

_Apse

In Christian architecture, an apse refers to a semicircular projection at the east end of a church. It’s typically where the altar is placed and often contains the clergy seating. The term “apse” comes from the Latin word “apsis,” meaning “arch” or “vault.” It’s commonly found in churches of various denominations. Early Christian architecture drew heavily from Roman architectural forms. The apse has roots in Roman architecture, where it was commonly used in public buildings such as basilicas and baths.

^{Basilica of Sant’Apollinare in Classe (549), view towards the apse, Ravenna, Italy.} 

_Archangel

A high-ranking angel, serving as messenger or warrior of divine will. The primary archangels in Western Christian art are Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael:

Michael: the warrior archangel, depicted in armor with a sword or spear, often shown defeating Satan. Gabriel: the messenger archangel, most famously appearing in the Annunciation to the Virgin Mary, often depicted with a lily or scroll. Raphael: associated with healing and guidance, frequently shown with Tobias, whom he guides in the search for medicine.

In the angelic hierarchy, archangels bridge the divine and human realms. They rank above angels but below the seraph and cherub, who are closest to God.

^{The Archangel Michael, Raphael and Gabriel with Tobias (1470), Francesco Botticini (1446 – 1498), Tempera on panel, 135x154cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.}

_{Arte della Lana}

The Arte della Lana, or “Wool Guild,” was one of the seven major guilds (Arti Maggiori) in medieval and Renaissance Florence. The wool industry was a cornerstone of Florence’s economy, and by the 14th century, the Arte della Lana had become one of the most powerful and influential guilds in the city, reflecting Florence’s prominence in the European wool trade. The Arte della Lana was also instrumental in establishing and funding the Opera del Duomo, the organization responsible for constructing and maintaining the Florence Cathedral.

^{Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (1296 to 1436), Florence.}

_{Book of Hours}

A Book of Hours is a type of medieval manuscript commonly found in Western Europe, especially during the late medieval period (13th to 16th centuries). It was a private prayer book, intended for personal devotion, and typically contained a collection of prayers, psalms, hymns, and other religious texts. These books were highly personalized, often including calendars, prayers for specific times of the day (hence the name “hours”), and illustrations depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints, as well as scenes from daily life related to the seasons. They were called “Books of Hours” because they were organized around the Church’s canonical hours, which were specific times for prayer throughout the day.

_{“February” from the Book of Hours “Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry” (c.1414), by the Limbourg Brothers, 23x14cm, Condé Museum, Chateau de Chantilly, Paris.}

_{Boulle Furniture}

Boulle furniture refers to a style of furniture that is decorated with intricate marquetry of brass, tortoiseshell, and sometimes other materials such as ivory or mother-of-pearl. This technique was named after André-Charles Boulle (1642-1732), a French cabinetmaker and one of the most famous craftsmen of the Louis XIV period. The primary materials used are brass and tortoiseshell. The use of tortoiseshell specifically contributes to the distinctive red color seen in many Boulle designs, as the natural hues of tortoiseshell range from amber to deep red.

_{Desk (c.1685) from the Château de Versailles, made for Louis XIV by Alexandre–Jean Oppenordt (1639 – 1715), Boulle-style marquetry of tortoiseshell, engraved brass, gilt bronze and steel, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_Cameo

In an artistic context, a cameo refers to a method of carving, typically used on gemstones, where a raised relief image is created. This technique exploits the natural layers of the material, such as onyx or agate, to produce a contrasting image against a differently colored background. Cameos have been crafted since ancient times, with notable examples found in Roman art. The technique saw a revival during the Renaissance and another resurgence during the Victorian era.

_{Gemma Augustea, (c.10, early Roman imperial era), Low-relief cameo cut from a double-layered Arabian onyx stone, 19x23cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.}

_{Camee, Cammeo, 多彩宝石浮雕}

_Campanile

A Campanile is a freestanding bell tower, square or rectangular in shape and can vary in height. Campaniles are found adjacent to churches and serve the purpose of housing bells, which are rung to signal the time, call people to worship, alarm the inhabitants of a city, or mark significant events. Famous examples of a campanile are the Campanile di San Marco in Venice and the Torre Pendente in Pisa.

_{Tower of Pisa (1372) or the Campanile of the Duomo di Pisa.}

_{Cardinal Nipote}

The term Cardinal Nipote (“Cardinal Nephew”) refers to a cardinal appointed by the Pope because he was a relative, often the Pope’s nephew. This practice was particularly prevalent during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Such nepotism fostered corruption and undermined the spiritual integrity of the Church. In 1692, Pope Innocent XII ended the practice of appointing cardinal nephews as part of a broader effort to reform the Church and reduce the influence of nepotism.

_{Portrait of Pope Leo X with 2 cardinals, his cousin Giulio de’ Medici (future Pope Clement VII) and his cousin Luigi de’ Rossi (1518), Raphael (1483 – 1520), 156x120cm, Galleria degli Uffizi on view in Palazzo Pitti, Florence.}

_Cartoon

In the process of creating large-scale works of art, such as frescoes or tapestries, a cartoon refers to a full-size preparatory drawing. This drawing serves as a detailed blueprint or template from which the final artwork will be produced. The drawing may be done in charcoal, ink, or other media, and it often includes color indications to guide the final work’s coloring.

_{The Miraculous Draft of Fishes (c.1516), cartoon for a Vatican Tapestry, Raphael (Italian, 1483 – 1520), watercolour and charcoal on sheets of paper, 319x399cm, Royal Collection Trust on loan to the Victoria & Albert Museum, London.}

_Cathedral

A cathedral is a Christian church that serves as the seat of a bishop. It is often the church where the bishop’s throne or cathedra is located, hence the term “cathedral” derived from the Greek word “kathedra,” meaning “seat” or “throne.” It’s important to note that not all large churches are cathedrals. A church becomes a cathedral when it becomes the official seat of a bishop, often through a formal decree by the pope or another church authority.

_{Pisa Cathedral or Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta or Duomo di Pisa (1118), seat of the Archbishop of Pisa.}

_Cherubim

Cherubim or cherubs are angels associated with divine wisdom and contemplation. In the angelic hierarchy, cherubs occupy the second-highest order, just below the seraphim. In their sacred role, cherubs are depicted in heavenly scenes with intense, radiant colors that convey their divine presence. Putti may resemble cherubs in their youthful, innocent appearance, but formally they are not part of the angelic hierarchy or any religious function. Instead, putti represent worldly concepts such as love, playfulness, or the joys of earthly life. Cherubs, by contrast, are reserved for explicitly religious contexts.

_{Madonna of the Red Cherubim (c.1487), Giovanni Bellini (c.1435 – 1516), Oil on panel, 77x60cm, Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice.}

_Chiaroscuro

Chiaroscuro is a painting technique that utilizes strong contrasts between light and dark. The term comes from the Italian words “chiaro,” meaning light, and “scuro,” meaning dark. In Dutch it’s called clair-obscur. In chiaroscuro, artists manipulate light and shadow to emphasize forms and shapes. This technique often involves placing the main source of light within the scene so that it highlights certain areas while casting shadows in others. The use of chiaroscuro became prominent during the Baroque period, with artists like Caravaggio and Rembrandt being notable practitioners of the technique.

_{The Procuress (1625), Gerard van Honthorst (Utrecht, 1592 – 1656), 71x104cm, Centraal Museum, Utrecht, The Netherlands.}

_Cinquecento

The term Cinquecento refers to the cultural period of the 16th century in Italy. It designates the 1500s and encompasses the High Renaissance and the subsequent Mannerist period. Prominent artists of the Cinquecento include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. The Cinquecento period represents the zenith of Renaissance art.

_{The Creation of Adam (c.1511), Michelangelo (1475 – 1564), Fresco, 230x480cm, Sistine Chapel, Vatican.} 

_{Classical Orders}

The classical orders in architecture refer to a set of architectural styles originating from ancient Greece and Rome that became foundational elements in Western architectural design. The three main classical orders originated from Greece: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order can de identified by their columns and capitals. Doric order: the most simple and compact, the column is wide in relation to its height. Ionic order: recognised by its volutes on the capital. Corinthian order: its capital features vegetal motifs, and a slender column. Two more orders were added in Roman times: Tuscan and Composite order.

_{Les Ordres Classiques, from Encyclopédie, Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784), Bibliothèque Nationale de France.}

_Condottiere

During the Renaissance, the term Condottiere referred to a leader of a mercenary army. These condottieri were contracted by city-states, popes, and princes to provide military services. The term itself originates from the Italian word “condotta”, which denotes the contract through which individuals provided their services. Condottieri were prominent figures, with some attaining great influence, wealth, and fame.

_{Portrait of Condottiere Federico da Montefeltro (c.1475), Piero della Francesca (1415 – 1492), 47x33cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.}

_Contrapposto

Contrapposto is a term used in the visual arts to describe a particular pose in which a figure stands with its weight shifted onto one leg, causing the hips and shoulders to rest at opposite angles, creating a slight “S” shape through the body. This pose is characterized by a naturalistic and relaxed stance, with one leg bearing the weight while the other leg remains relaxed, often bent at the knee. Contrapposto is a fundamental concept in art that originated in Classical antiquity and was revived and refined during the Renaissance. It remains an important technique for representing the human figure in a dynamic and lifelike manner, emphasizing balance, naturalism, and grace.

^{David (1504), Michelangelo (Italian, 1475 – 1564), marble, height 517cm, Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence.}

_Capriccio

In visual art, a Capriccio (plural: capricci) is an imaginative landscape or architectural scene. The term comes from the Italian word for “caprice” or “whim,” highlighting the playful and creative essence of these works. Capricci merge real and fantastical elements, crafting scenes that don’t exist in reality but evoke a sense of wonder. They blend architecture, landscapes, and figures in ways that express an artistic vision rather than a literal depiction of the world.

^{Capriccio with ruins and classical buildings (c.1760), Canaletto (1697 – 1768), 63x76cm, Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice.}

_Doge

The Doge held the position of chief magistrate in Venice, Genoa, and several smaller Italian city-republics during the medieval and Renaissance periods. Elected by the city-state’s aristocracy, the Doge’s selection involved a system of checks and balances aimed at preventing any single family or faction from monopolizing power. A distinctive feature of the Doge’s attire was the Corno Ducale, a ceremonial headpiece. The term “Doge” shares roots with the English word “Duke”.

^{Doge Leonardo Loredan (c.1502), Giovanni Bellini (c.1435 – 1516), 61×45cm, National Gallery, London.}

_{Dominican Order}

The Dominican Order, officially known as the Order of Preachers (Ordo Praedicatorum, O.P.), is a mendicant order founded by Saint Dominic de Guzmán in 1216. Originating in Toulouse, France, the Dominicans’ mission is to preach and teach the true Catholic faith. Initially, Dominicans were instrumental in combating those adhering to the Cathar (Albigensian) heresy in the Languedoc region of southern France. Dominicans were also given a formal role in the Papal Inquisition and their friars were appointed as inquisitors, responsible for identifying, investigating, and prosecuting heresy. Dominican friars are easily identifiable by their white habit with a hooded cape and a black mantle. Often, a large rosary is worn at the waist, reflecting the Dominican devotion to the Rosary. Key figures in the Dominican Order include Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint Catherine of Siena, and Fra Angelico.

^{Saint Dominic in Prayer (1606), El Greco (1541 – 1614), 105x83cm, Museum of Fine Arts Boston.}

_{Predikheren, Black Friars, Frati Predicatori, 黑衣修士}

_{Donor Portrait}

A Donor Portrait is a type of painting that depicts the person who commissioned the artwork, often shown within a religious scene or in a position of reverence. Typically commissioned by a wealthy individual or family as an act of piety or devotion, these portraits include the donors within the religious context to demonstrate their faith and hope for divine favour. Particularly common during medieval and Renaissance periods, donor portraits appear in various forms throughout art history.

^{Madonna with Canon Joris van der Paele (1436), Jan van Eyck (c.1390 – 1441), 125x160cm, Groeningemuseum, Bruges, Belgium.}

_{Schenkersportret, Ritratto del Donatore, 捐助者肖像}

_{Doric Order}

The Doric Order is one of the three classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture, alongside the Ionic and Corinthian orders. It is characterized by its simplicity, strength, and masculine appearance. The Doric column capital is round and there are no decorative elements like volutes (scrolls) or leaves as seen in Ionic and Corinthian capitals. Doric columns are usually fluted with vertical grooves and without a base. The shaft is wider at the bottom and becomes more slender towards the top,

^{Temple of Apollo (c.550 BC), Corinth, Greece.}

_{East of Eden (Land of Nod)}

East of Eden is a phrase originating from the Biblical narrative in Genesis, referring to the place where Cain was exiled after he killed his brother Abel. Cain was sent to the “Land of Nod”, located East of Eden. “Nod” means “wandering” or “exile” in Hebrew. Symbolically, East of Eden represents a place of exile, wandering, and separation from paradise. In literature and art, it often conveys themes of loss, guilt, and the consequences of human actions. The phrase is famously used as the title of John Steinbeck’s novel, “East of Eden,” which explores complex themes of good and evil, familial conflict, and the quest for identity.

^{Curse of Caïn, being sent into the Land of Nod, East of Eden (1583), from the series Sinners of the Old Testament, engraving by Raphaël Sadeler I (1561 – 1628) after design by Maerten de Vos (1532 – 1603), 24x20cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.}

_{Ecce Homo}

Ecce Homo is a subject in Christian art depicting Jesus Christ crowned with thorns and shown to the people by Pontius Pilate before his crucifixion, emphasizing his suffering and humanity. The term means ‘See the Man’ in Latin. Jesus is shown wearing a crown of thorns, a robe, and sometimes holding a staff, often with his hands bound. The backdrop may include Pilate, soldiers, and onlookers. According to the Gospel of John (19:5), Pilate spoke the words Ecce Homo when he presented Jesus Christ to the hostile crowd.”

^{Ecce Homo (c.1605), Caravaggio (1571 – 1610), 128x103cm, Palazzo Bianco, Genoa, Italy.}

_Engraving

An engraving is a printmaking technique where an artist incises a design onto a metal plate, typically copper, using a sharp tool called a burin. Ink is then applied to the plate, and the surface wiped clean, leaving ink only in the incised lines. The plate is then pressed onto paper, transferring the ink and creating the final image. This process results in clean, precise lines and often produces a characteristic crispness and clarity in the final print.

^{Jonah Spat Up By the Whale. Second engraving from a series of three prints (c.1584), engraved by Johann Sadeler (Flemish, 1550 – 1600) after a drawing by Dirck Barendsz (Dutch, 1534 – 1592), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.}

_{Fall of Man}

The Fall of Man refers to the pivotal event in the Book of Genesis where the first humans, Adam and Eve, disobey God’s command by eating the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, which tree was growing in the middle of the Garden of Eden. This act of disobedience marks humanity’s transition from a state of innocence and harmony with God to a state of sin and estrangement. As a result, Adam and Eve become aware of their nakedness, experience shame, and are subsequently expelled from the Garden of Eden. This event signifies the beginning of human suffering and mortality, and the introduction of moral corruption into the world.

^{Adam and Eve; the Fall of Man (1504), Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528), engraving, 25x20cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_{Zondeval, Caduta, 人的堕落}

_{Fine Arts}

Fine Arts refer to creative disciplines primarily focused on the creation of art for its aesthetic value and intellectual stimulation rather than functional purpose. This category includes traditional visual arts like painting, sculpture, and drawing, as well as performing arts such as music, dance, and theater. Fine arts are often considered expressions of the artist’s imagination and emotions, and they are appreciated for their beauty and emotional power. In contrast to Applied Arts, which emphasize practical function alongside aesthetic appeal, Fine Arts prioritize pure artistic expression without utilitarian concerns.

^{Kunstkammer or Apelles Painting Campaspe (1630), Willem van Haecht (1593 – 1637), 105x149cm, Mauritshuis, The Hague.}

_{Schone Kunsten, Beaux-arts, Belle Arti, 美術}

_{Foreshortening}

Foreshortening is a technique used in visual art to create the illusion of depth and perspective by depicting objects or figures as receding into the distance or projecting forward toward the viewer. This technique involves representing objects or parts of objects at an angle to the picture plane, resulting in their appearance being shortened or compressed. By employing foreshortening, artists can create a convincing illusion of depth and three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface, such as a canvas or paper. Foreshortening can be challenging for artists to master, as it requires an understanding of perspective, anatomy, and spatial relationships.

^{Lamentation of Christ (c.1483), Andrea Mantegna (Italian, 1431 – 1506), Tempera on Canvas, 68×81cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.}

_{Franciscan Order}

The Franciscan Order, formally known as the Order of Friars Minor (Ordo Fratrum Minorum), is a religious mendicant order founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in 1209. It is characterized by its members’ commitment to poverty, simplicity, devotion to living out the teachings of Jesus Christ, and aiding the poor and marginalized. Inspired by Francis’ reverence for all creation, Franciscans advocate for love of nature and environmental stewardship. The Franciscan Order has several branches, including the Capuchins and the Poor Clares. The Franciscan Order continues to be a vital and dynamic force within the Catholic Church, with members actively involved in social and pastoral work worldwide. Franciscan friars typically wear a brown habit with a hood, a simple cord with three knots tied around their waist, and sandals.

^{Legend of Saint Francis, Sermon to the Birds (c.1290), Attributed to Giotto (c.1266 – 1337), Fresco, 270x200cm, Upper Church of the Basilica di San Francesco, Assisi, Italy.}

_{Minderbroeders, Frati Minori, 小兄弟会}

_Fresco

Fresco refers to a painting technique used primarily in the Renaissance period, particularly in Italy. It involves applying pigment onto a wet plaster surface. The word fresco itself comes from the Italian word “affresco,” which means “fresh.” The artist first prepares a wall surface by applying several layers of plaster. The final layer, called the intonaco, is a smooth, fine-grained layer onto which the painting will be executed. While the plaster is still damp, the artist applies pigments mixed with water directly onto the surface. The pigments bind with the wet plaster as it dries, creating a permanent bond between the painting and the wall.

^{Holy Trinity (c.1426), Masaccio (Italian, 1401 – 1428), fresco, 667x317cm, Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence.}

_{Garden of Eden}

The Garden of Eden is described in religious texts as a paradisiacal garden where the first humans, Adam and Eve, lived before their expulsion. It is often depicted in art as an idyllic, lush landscape filled with diverse flora and fauna. Symbolically, the Garden of Eden represents innocence, purity, and the original state of bliss before the fall of man. In various artistic works, it serves as a setting for the narrative of creation, temptation, and the subsequent fall, highlighting themes of paradise lost and the beginning of human sin.

^{The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (1615), Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568 – 1625) and Peter Paul Rubens (1577 – 1640), 74x115cm, Mauritshuis, The Hague.}

_Genre

A genre painting is a type of artwork that depicts scenes from everyday life, portraying ordinary people engaged in ordinary activities. These paintings often focus on domestic settings, rural life, or urban scenes, and they aim to capture the essence of daily life, customs, and social interactions. Genre paintings became particularly popular during the 17th century in Europe, depicting various social classes and their routines. They provide insights into historical contexts, cultural norms, and human behavior. But beware, there can be a – moralizing – meaning hidden in the depicted scene.

^{The Tailor’s Workshop (1661), Quirijn van Brekelenkam (Netherlandish, 1622 – 1669), 66x53cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.}

_Gesso

Gesso is a crucial material used in painting, particularly in the preparation of surfaces like canvas or wood panels. It serves as a primer to create a smooth and absorbent ground for painting, helping the paint adhere better and preventing it from soaking into the underlying material. Additionally, gesso can be used to create texture in a painting. Traditional gesso is made from a mixture of animal glue, chalk or gypsum, and a white pigment. Contemporary artists often use acrylic gesso.

^{Portrait of a Man with a Medallion of Cosimo the Elder (c.1474), Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510), Tempera on panel with the medallion in gilded low relief gesso plaster, 58x45cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.}

_{Golden Rose}

The Golden Rose is a prestigious and symbolic gift awarded annually by the Pope as a tangible expression of gratitude for significant contributions to the Church, reinforcing the spiritual and moral bonds between the Pope and the recipient. This tradition dates back to at least the 11th century and has been bestowed upon royalty, cities, churches, and sanctuaries. In modern times, it is often awarded to significant religious sites. Traditionally, the Golden Rose is a single, intricately designed rose made of gold, sometimes embellished with precious stones, and created by the most skilled artisans.

^{Golden Rose (c.1325), given to the Count of Neuchâtel by Pope John XXII in 1330, made by Minucchio Da Siena, height 60cm, Musée de Cluny, Paris.}

_Grisaille

As a style of monochromatic painting, particularly used for the representation of relief sculpture, a grisaille refers to a painting executed entirely in shades of gray, mimicking the appearance of sculpted stone or metal relief. In this context, grisaille serves to create the illusion of three-dimensional form and texture, emphasizing light and shadow to give the impression of depth and solidity.

^{The Annunciation Diptych (c.1435), Jan van Eyck (Flemish, c.1390 – 1441), each 39x24cm, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid.}

_{Harrowing of Hell}

Harrowing of Hell, also known as Anastasis or Christ in Limbo, is an event in Christian theology where Christ descends towards Hell during the three days between His crucifixion and resurrection, to free the righteous souls who had died before His coming, typically Old Testament figures like Adam and Eve. The term ‘Harrowing of Hell’ is used in Western Christianity, while ‘Anastasis’ is used in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, derived from the Greek word Ἀνάστασις, which means ‘resurrection.’ ‘Christ in Limbo’ refers to Christ descending into Limbo, the pre-stage of Hell, where the righteous souls awaited redemption.

^{Harrowing of Hell or Christ in Limbo (c.1441), Fra Angelico (c.1395 – 1455), Fresco, 183x166cm, San Marco, Florence, Italy.}

_Intarsia

Intarsia is a woodworking technique that involves creating intricate inlaid designs using different types of wood. This method was particularly popular during the Renaissance period in Italy. Different species of wood are chosen for their color, grain, and texture to create contrast and depth. Exotic woods like ebony, mahogany, and walnut are often used alongside more common types. The wood is cut into precise shapes, meticulously shaped and fitted to the adjacent pieces to form a seamless image. The pieces are then assembled on a backing, either by gluing them directly onto a substrate or by fitting them together without adhesives.

^{Panel from Duke Federico da Montefeltro’s studiolo from the Palazzo Ducale, Gubbio, Italy (c.1480), Intarsia of walnut, beech, rosewood, oak and fruitwoods, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_{Ionic Order}

The Ionic Order is a classical order of ancient Greek and Roman architecture, characterized by its more ornate and graceful appearance compared to the Doric Order; but still less decorative than the third classical order, the Corinthian Order. The most distinctive feature of the Ionic Order is its capital, which consists of a pair of volutes (scroll-like ornaments) on either side of the top of the column. Ionic columns are usually more slender and taller than Doric columns.

^{East Porch of the Erechtheion, (c.415 BC), Acropolis, Athens.}

_Krater

A krater in ancient Greek pottery is a large vessel used for mixing wine and water. It was typically used in symposiums, which were social gatherings where men would drink wine, discuss politics, philosophy, and socialize. Kraters were often decorated with scenes depicting mythology, daily life, or rituals. There were different types of kraters, including the volute krater, calyx krater, and column krater, each with its distinctive shape and purpose.

^{Krater (c.395BC) by the so-called Tarporley Painter, produced in Apulia (Italy), depicting Athena with the head of Medusa, Perseus and Hermes, height 31cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA.}

_Lattimo

Lattimo, or “milk-glass”, refers to a type of glass developed in Venice during the Renaissance, specifically known for its milk-white, opaque appearance resembling Chinese porcelain. This effect is achieved by adding tin oxide to the glass mixture during production. Its porcelain-like quality made it particularly desirable, as porcelain was highly prized and difficult to obtain in Europe at that time.

^{Marriage Beaker (c.1495), Venetian opaque glass (lattimo or milk-glass), 10x7cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH.}

_Maestà

Maestà refers to a specific type of painting, depicting a majestic, enthroned Virgin Mary holding the Christ child and surrounded by saints and angels. The term Maestà comes from the Italian word for “majesty”. These artworks are characterised by their use of gold leaf and a lack of linear perspective, illustrating the transition from Byzantine-inspired images towards the more naturalistic forms that would emerge in the Renaissance.

^{Maestà (1312 – 1315), Simone Martini (c.1284 – 1344), Fresco, c.600x800cm, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy.}

_Marquetry

Marquetry is a decorative technique used in furniture making, involving the inlay of different materials to create elaborate patterns and images on the surfaces of furniture. This art form uses thin veneers of wood, but can also incorporate other materials such as bone, ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, metal, and stone, carefully cut and assembled to form detailed designs. The pieces are meticulously fitted together and adhered to the base surface, creating a smooth, unified surface that showcases the intricate designs. Marquetry reached its peak of sophistication and popularity in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, with French furniture makers becoming renowned for their luxurious furniture pieces commissioned by the European aristocracy.

^{Table (1778) from the Versailles Palace, made for Marie-Antoinette by Jean Henri Riesener (1734 – 1806), Oak veneered with satinwood marquetry of holly, amaranth, barberry, sycamore, and green-lacquered wood, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_Marqueterie

_{Mendicant Orders}

Mendicant Orders are religious orders emphasizing poverty, itinerancy (traveling from place to place), and the preaching of the Gospel. The term “mendicant” comes from the Latin word “mendicare,” meaning “to beg.” These orders rely primarily on charitable donations and the goodwill of others for their sustenance, rather than on owning property or earning income through traditional means. Their key characteristics include the vow of poverty, preaching, and serving the poor, the sick, and the marginalized in society. Major Mendicant Orders include the Franciscans (founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209), Dominicans (founded by St. Dominic in 1216), Carmelites (originated on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land in the 12th century), and Augustinians (formed in the 13th century, inspired by the rule of St. Augustine). Unlike traditional monastic orders, which are often more cloistered and self-sufficient (e.g., Benedictines, Cistercians), mendicant orders are more outward-facing and engage actively with society, focusing on outreach, evangelism, and direct service to the community rather than withdrawing from the world. Members of mendicant orders are known as “friars,” highlighting their active engagement with the world, as opposed to “monks,” who are members of monastic orders.

^{The meeting of Saint Dominic and Saint Francis of Assisi (c.1427), Fra Angelico (c.1395 – 1455), tempera and gold leaf on panel, 26x27cm, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.}

Bedelorden, Ordini Mendicanti, 托钵修会

_{Metamorphoses}

Metamorphoses is a Latin narrative poem written by the Roman poet Ovid, completed in AD 8 and consisting of 15 books. The poem is a collection of myths and legends from Greek and Roman mythology. Each narrative typically involves a transformation of one being into another, accompanied by themes of love, power, revenge, and the whims of the gods. Among the most renowned stories are those of Daphne and Apollo, the Rape of Europa, Narcissus and Echo, Diana and Callisto, Zeus and Io and the tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. The work is one of the important pieces of classical literature and has inspired numerous artists including Shakespeare, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt..

^{Daphne escapes Apollo by transforming into a Laurel Tree (1622), Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680), Carrara marble, height 240cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome.}

_Narthex

A narthex is an architectural space, usually a vestibule or entrance hall, located at the western entrance of a Christian church. The narthex serves as a transitional space between the outside world and the sacred interior of the church. It’s where worshipers can gather before and after services, and where those preparing for baptism traditionally waited before entering the church. A “narthex” is not to be confused with a “portico“, which is a covered area in front of a house or public building where people can gather or seek shelter. While both porticos and narthexes are entrance areas in architectural terms, the key difference lies in their location (attached to the entrance vs. preceding the entrance) and their specific cultural and functional contexts.

^{Narthex (1615) of the Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican- Narthex by Carlo Maderno (Italian, 1556 – 1629).}

_Nativity

The Nativity refers to the depiction of the birth of Jesus Christ. Artistic representations of the Nativity include the Holy Family – Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus – placed in a humble setting, such as a stable or cave.

^{The Nativity (1523), Lorenzo Lotto (c.1480 – 1556), Oil on panel, 46x36cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington.}

_Nishiki-e

Nishiki-e (錦絵), meaning “brocade pictures,” refers to Japanese multi-colored woodblock prints that emerged in the mid-18th century. This technique revolutionized Ukiyo-e by using multiple carved blocks, one for each color, to create detailed images resembling woven brocade. Suzuki Harunobu is credited with pioneering Nishiki-e. His innovations marked a turning point in Japanese printmaking, transitioning it from monochrome or hand-coloured prints to fully integrated polychrome designs.

^{A Woman Sweeping up Her Love Letters (c.1750, Edo Period), Suzuki Harunobu (Japanese, 1725 – 1770), Woodblock print on paper, 28x 22cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_{Noli Me Tangere}

Noli Me Tangere is a Latin phrase meaning “Don’t Touch Me,” associated with the biblical scene where the resurrected Christ appears to Mary Magdalene outside his tomb, just after his Resurrection. This event takes place in the Garden of Gethsemane, where Mary Magdalene initially mistakes Christ for a gardener before realizing she is encountering the resurrected Christ. When Mary Magdalene reaches out to Christ, he speaks the words “Noli Me Tangere.” These words convey the message that it is time to say goodbye to his earthly presence and to “let it go,” encouraging a spiritual rather than a physical connection.

^{Noli Me Tangere (1514), Titian (1490 – 1576), 111x92cm, National Gallery, London.}

_Oculus

An oculus is a circular opening, typically found in the center of a dome, temple, or other architectural structure. The term “oculus” is Latin for “eye,” and indeed, these openings resemble eyes in their appearance. An oculus allows natural light to enter the interior of a building, illuminating the space below. In addition to admitting light, an oculus can facilitate air or water flow; and oculus openings also often serve as focal points or decorative elements within a structure.

_{Ponte Sisto (1479), Rome. The oculus facilitates the water flow and therefore reduces pressure on the bridge when the water level rises above the arches.}

_Ormolu

Ormolu is a gilding technique to ornament furniture, vases, clocks, and other decorative objects. The term comes from the French “or moulu,” which means “ground gold.” Ormolu involves applying a finely ground gold and mercury amalgam to a bronze object. The mixture is brushed onto the object and then heated until the mercury evaporates, leaving behind a thin layer of gold. This process is also known as mercury gilding or fire gilding. Ormolu reached its peak in France during the Rococo and Neoclassical periods. The original process of mercury gilding posed serious health risks due to mercury fumes. Today, ormolu is replicated using safer and more environmentally friendly methods, such as electroplating or other non-toxic gilding techniques.

_{Pair of Chinese porcelain vases (early18th century) with French ormolu mounts (c.1760), 32x17x12cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_{Vergulden, Bronze Doré, Gilt Bronze, Doratura, 贴金}

_Parchment

Parchment is a material made from the skin of animals, typically sheep, goats, or calves. It has been used for centuries as a writing surface for manuscripts and documents. The process of making parchment involves soaking the animal skin in water, scraping off any remaining flesh and hair, and then stretching and drying it under tension. This results in a smooth, durable surface that is suitable for writing or painting. In the context of old manuscripts, parchment was commonly used before the advent of paper. It was prized for its durability and longevity, making it ideal for preserving important texts over long periods of time. Many historical documents, including religious texts, legal documents, and literary works, were written on parchment.

^{Manuscript 0139, f.003v-004, Jean Mielot, Miroir de l’humaine salvation, parchment, leaf 40x30cm, Chantilly, Bibliothèque et Archives du Château, France.}

_{Piano Nobile}

Piano Nobile (Italian for “noble floor”) refers to the principal floor of a large European house, typically a palace or grand residence, which is situated above the ground floor. The Piano Nobile is more elaborately designed and decorated than other floors, featuring higher ceilings, grand windows, and more opulent architectural details. This concept is most commonly associated with Renaissance and Baroque architecture. The French term is “Bel-Étage”.

^{Palazzo Chiericati (1550), Andrea Palladio (1508 – 1580), Vicenza, Italy.}

_Pietà

Pietà refers to a specific depiction of the Virgin Mary cradling the dead body of Jesus after his crucifixion, often seen in painting or sculpture. Emphasizing Mary’s sorrow and grief, a Pietà embodies themes of maternal love, loss, and compassion. Typically, Mary holds Jesus’ lifeless body on her lap or in her arms, with his form limp and her expression sorrowful, sometimes looking at him or upwards toward heaven. Occasionally, the apostle John may be present, similarly expressing sorrow. The word pietà is Italian and means ‘pity’ or ‘compassion’.

^{Pietà (c.1460), Giovanni Bellini (c.1435 – 1516), Tempera on panel, 86x107cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.}

_{Pietra Dura}

Pietra Dura, an art form involving the inlay of highly polished colored stones, derives its name from the Italian words “pietra” (stone) and “dura” (hard). In furniture making, this technique uses semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, jasper, onyx, alabaster, and malachite, which are meticulously cut and fitted together to create detailed images or patterns. Pietra Dura was popular during the Renaissance in Florence, Italy. The Medici family established the Opificio delle Pietre Dure in the late 16th century, a workshop that became a hub for the creation and innovation of Pietra Dura works. This workshop still exists and can be visited in Florence.

^{Pietra Dura tabletop (late 16th century), Italy, various hardstones, alabaster, and marble, 239x115x10cm, 873kg, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.}

_宝石镶嵌

_{Pietra Serena}

Pietra Serena is a blue-gray sandstone quarried near Florence, Italy, historically significant in Renaissance architecture. Renowned for its aesthetic qualities and workability, it was extensively used by architects like Brunelleschi and Michelangelo in structures such as the Medici Chapels and the Pazzi Chapel. Pietra Serena’s smooth finish and uniform color made it ideal for columns, pilasters, cornices, door and window frames, and other architectural elements, harmonizing beautifully with marble and terracotta. Although durable, it requires proper maintenance to prevent weathering.

^{Sagrestia Vecchia di San Lorenzo or Old Sacristy (c.1440), Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446), Medici Chapels, Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence, Italy.} 

_Pilaster

A pilaster is a rectangular column or pillar that is usually attached to a wall and often projects slightly from it. Unlike a freestanding column, a pilaster is purely decorative or serves just a minor structural purpose. It typically has a base, shaft, and capital, much like a regular column, but it doesn’t support any significant weight. Pilasters are often used to articulate the facade of a building or to frame doors and windows. Pilasters are serving aesthetic purposes.

^{Interior of the Cappella dei Pazzi (1443), Florence, Italy.}

_Porphyry

Porphyry is a type of rock characterized by its reddish-purple color. It was highly prized by the Romans, who used it extensively in their monumental architecture, particularly for columns, pavements, vases and sarcophagi. Porphyry’s hardness and ability to hold intricate details make it suitable for sculpting. Its durability ensures that these sculptures can withstand the test of time, making porphyry a popular choice for creating lasting artistic masterpieces.

^{The Four Tetrarchs (c.300), porphyry, height 130cm, Piazza San Marco, Venice, Italy.}

_Portico

A “portico” is an architectural feature commonly found in non-religious buildings. It’s a structure consisting of a roof supported by columns, typically attached to the entrance of a building. A portico serves as a covered area where people can gather or seek shelter before entering the main building. A “portico” is not to be confused with a “narthex“, which is a vestibule or entrance hall, located at the western entrance of a Christian church. While both porticos and narthexes are entrance areas in architectural terms, the key difference lies in their location (attached to the entrance vs. preceding the entrance) and their specific cultural and functional contexts.

^{Villa La Rotonda (1567), Andrea Palladio (Italian, 1508 – 1580), Vicenza, Italy. Two of the four porticos.}

_Predella

A predella is the lower part of an altarpiece, positioned between the main panels and the altar.

_{Lamentation of Christ on the predella of the Isenheim Altarpiece (c.1514), Matthias Grünewald (German, c.1470 – 1528), open 269x589cm, Musée Unterlinden, Colmar, France.}

_Putti

Putti (singular: putto) are chubby, often naked, winged infants or toddler-like figures, particularly in Renaissance and Baroque art. They are associated with themes of love, innocence, and playfulness. Putti often have small wings attached to their backs, symbolizing celestial realms. In classical mythology, putti are associated with Cupid, the god of love in Roman mythology, and Eros in Greek mythology. Putti may resemble cherubs but are not part of the angelic hierarchy. Instead, putti represent worldly concepts such as love or playfulness. Cherubs, by contrast, are reserved for explicitly religious functions.

_{Sistine Madonna (1514), Raphael (1483 – 1520), 265x196cm, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Germany.}

_Quattrocento

The term Quattrocento refers to the cultural period of the 15th century in Italy. It designates the 1400s and is a part of the broader Renaissance era. Prominent artists of the Quattrocento include Masaccio, Fra Angelico and Sandro Botticelli. The Quattrocento laid the groundwork for the subsequent High Renaissance.

_{The Birth of Venus (c.1485), Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510), 173x279cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.}

_Reliquary

A reliquary is a container or shrine that houses and displays relics, which are the physical remains or personal effects of saints, martyrs, or other figures deemed holy. These relics can include bones, hair, clothing, or objects associated with them. Reliquaries were believed to provide a tangible connection to the divine and played a central role in religious ceremonies and pilgrimages. During the medieval period and onwards, reliquaries became increasingly elaborate and artistic, crafted using precious materials such as gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel.

_{Bust of Charlemagne “Karlsbüste” (c.1350), containing the top part of Charlemagne’s skull, Gold, silver, gems, precious stones, pearls, height 86cm, Aachen Cathedral Treasury, Aachen, Germany.}

_{Reliekhouder, Reliquiario, 圣物箱}

_Repoussoir

In painting, a repoussoir is a compositional technique used to create depth and perspective within the picture plane. It involves placing a significant element, often a figure or object, in the foreground of the composition, typically along one or both sides of the painting. This foreground element serves to frame the composition and draw the viewer’s eye into the scene, enhancing the illusion of depth. The term “repoussoir” comes from the French word meaning “to push back” or “to repel.”

^{The Mill at Wijk bij Duurstede (c.1670), Jacob Isaacksz van Ruisdael (Netherlandish, 1628 – 1682), 83x101cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.}

_{Sacra Conversazione}

The term Sacra Conversazione (Italian for “holy conversation”) refers to a specific genre of religious painting that became popular during the Italian Renaissance. This type of painting typically depicts the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child surrounded by a group of saints who appear to be conversing or engaging with each other in a unified, harmonious space. The saints are shown in a serene and contemplative manner, suggesting a spiritual and timeless interaction.

^{Madonna and Child with Saints (c.1474), Piero della Francesca (1415 – 1492), 251x172cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan, Italy.}

_Secco

The “al secco” method of painting is a technique that involves applying paint onto a dry plaster surface, as opposed to the “al fresco” method, which entails painting on wet plaster. Similar to fresco painting, the artist first prepares the wall surface by applying layers of plaster. However, instead of painting on the wet plaster, the artist allows the plaster to dry completely before beginning the painting process. The artist applies paint directly onto the dry surface. The paint can be mixed with a binding agent, such as egg tempera or oil, to help it adhere to the plaster. The “al secco” method became popular as artists sought greater control over their compositions and desired the ability to make adjustments to their work more easily. However, paintings created using the “al secco” method may be more susceptible to deterioration over time compared to true frescoes, as they lack the chemical bond formed between pigment and wet plaster in fresco painting.

^{The Last Supper (1498), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519), tempera and fresco-secco, 700x880cm, Santa Maria delle Grazie Church, Milan.}

_Seraphim

Seraphim (singular: seraph) occupy the highest order in the Christian angelic hierarchy, positioned closest to God and above the rank of cherubim. Seraphim are typically depicted as six-winged beings in intense colors, often red or fiery hues, symbolizing their burning love and purity. Unlike archangels, who interact more directly with humanity, seraphim do not act as messengers or warriors but remain in perpetual adoration and worship of God. The term seraph is derived from the Hebrew saraph, meaning “the burning ones”.

^{God surrounded by Seraphim, illustration from Petites Heures de Jean de Berry (c.1380), Parchment, 22x15cm (page), Folio 189r, Manuscript Latin 18014, Bibliothèque nationale de France.}

_Sfumato

in painting, sfumato is an Italian term used to describe a technique that creates a soft, blurred, and atmospheric effect. It is particularly associated with the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. The word “sfumato” comes from the Italian verb “sfumare,” which means “to tone down” or “to evaporate like smoke.” This technique involves the subtle blending of colors and tones to create gradual transitions between light and shadow, form and background, without distinct outlines or harsh contrasts. By layering thin glazes of paint and gently blurring edges, artists achieve a sense of depth, volume, and realism in their paintings.

^{Portrait of Bindo Altoviti (c.1515), Raphael (Italian, 1483 – 1520), 60x44cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington.}

_{Shin Hanga}

Translated as “New Prints”, Shin Hanga (新版画) is a Japanese woodblock print movement from the early 20th century that revitalized traditional Ukiyo-e techniques by blending them with Western artistic influences such as perspective, shading, and naturalistic lighting. Unlike the artist-driven Sosaku Hanga, Shin Hanga preserved the collaborative process between artist, carver, printer, and publisher. Key publishers included Watanabe in Tokyo and Unsodo in Kyoto. Among the leading artists were Ohara Koson (1877–1945), celebrated as a master of Kacho-e (bird-and-flower prints), and Kasamatsu Shiro (1898–1991), known for his poetic landscapes and seasonal scenes. Popular with Western collectors, Shin Hanga played a major role in bringing Japanese printmaking to international audiences.

^{Toshogu Shrine in Ueno (1953), Kasamatsu Shiro (Japanese, 1898 – 1992), From the series “Tokyo Hakkei no Uchi” (“Eight Views of Tokyo”), Woodblock print, Shin Hanga period, 41x28cm, Unsodo publisher, Kyoto, Japan.}

_Signore

In the context of the Italian city-states during the Renaissance, a Signore (plural: “Signori”) was a lord or ruler who held sovereign power over a city-state. This title was often associated with the heads of powerful families who exerted political, military, and economic control over their territories. They were pivotal in the cultural developments of their regions, often acting as patrons to some of the most significant artists and intellectuals of the Renaissance period. The word “Signore” itself is directly linked to the Latin “senior”. Some notable examples of Signori are the Sforza (Milan), Este (Ferrara), Gonzaga (Mantua), and Montefeltro (Urbino).

^{Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, and his wife Battista Sforza (1465), Piero della Francesca (1412 – 1492), tempera on panel, each 47x33cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.}

_Tempera

In art, tempera refers to a type of paint that consists of pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder, usually egg yolk. This medium has been used for centuries and was particularly popular in medieval and early Renaissance painting. Tempera dries quickly and produces a matte finish. It allows for precise detail and layering, making it suitable for intricate works such as illuminated manuscripts and panel paintings. While tempera fell out of favor with the advent of oil painting in the 15th century, it has experienced occasional revivals and is still used by some contemporary artists.

^{The Baptism of Christ (c.1440), Piero della Francesca (Italian, c.1417 – 1492), Egg Tempera on Poplar, 167x116cm, National Gallery, London.}

_{Trompe l’Oeil}

Trompe l’Oeil (French for “trick the eye”) is an art technique that uses realistic imagery to create the optical illusion that depicted objects exist in three dimensions. This method tricks the viewer into perceiving a painted detail as a real, tangible object. The goal is to make the painted scene look so lifelike that the viewer momentarily believes it is real.

^{Trompe l’Oeil Still Life (c.1675), Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627 – 1678), 63x79cm, Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe, Germany.}

_Ukiyo-e

Ukiyo-e (浮世絵 or “pictures of the floating world”) is a genre of Japanese art that flourished from the 17th to the 19th century. Woodblock prints and paintings depicted scenes from everyday life, including kabuki actors, courtesans, landscapes, sumo wrestlers, and folktales. Originating during the Edo period, Ukiyo-e was both art and mass media: affordable, widely circulated, and deeply influential. The process involved artists, carvers, printers, and publishers working collaboratively to create vibrant, stylized compositions. Notable masters include Hokusai and Hiroshige.

^{The Sea off Satta in Suruga Province, from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, Utagawa Hiroshige (Japanese, 1797 – 1858), Woodblock print on paper, 36x25cm, The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.}

_Ultramarine

Ultramarine is a vivid blue pigment that has been highly valued in art since ancient times. It was made from ground lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone sourced primarily from mines in Afghanistan. The name “ultramarine” itself means “beyond the sea,” referencing the distant source of the pigment. In old master paintings, ultramarine was prized for its rich, deep color and its ability to maintain its hue over time. However, due to its scarcity and high cost, it was often reserved for the most important elements of a painting, such as the robes of religious figures or the deep blue of the sky. Its use was a symbol of wealth and status, as only the wealthiest patrons and artists could afford it.

^{The Virgin and Child (1426), Masaccio (Italian, 1401 – 1429), egg tempera on wood, 135×74cm, National Gallery, London.}

_{Utrecht Caravaggism}

Utrecht Caravaggism refers to a movement in Dutch art during the early 17th century, primarily in the city of Utrecht, influenced by the Italian Baroque painter Caravaggio. Artists like Dirck van Baburen, Hendrick ter Brugghen, and Gerard van Honthorst all came from Utrecht, stayed in Rome, and studied Caravaggio’s work firsthand. They were inspired by Caravaggio’s style and his dramatic use of light and shadow, known as chiaroscuro, as well as his naturalistic depiction of subjects. Back in Utrecht, they continued to work in Caravaggio’s manner and are now called the Utrecht Caravaggists.

^{Hendrick ter Brugghen (Netherlandish, 1588 – 1629), The Calling of St Matthew (1621), 102x137cm, Centraal Museum, Utrecht, The Netherlands.}

_Vanitas

A vanitas painting is a still-life painting that flourished in the Netherlands in the 17th century Dutch Golden Age. The term “vanitas” is Latin for “vanity,” and these paintings are characterized by their symbolic representations of the transience of life, the futility of pleasure and worldly possessions, and the inevitability of death. Vanitas paintings serve as reminders of the importance of spiritual contemplation and moral reflection.

^{Vanitas (c.1640), Harmen Steenwijck  (Netherlandish, 1612 – 1656), 38×38.2, Museum De Lakenhal, Leiden, The Netherlands.}

_Veduta

A Veduta is a type of painting that depicts a detailed and accurate representation of a cityscape or a panoramic view. The term “veduta” is Italian for “view.”

^{Greenwich Hospital from the North Bank of the Thames (c.1752), Canaletto (1697 – 1768), 69x107cm, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, United Kingdom.}

_Woodcut

A woodcut is a relief printing technique where an artist carves a design into a wooden block. The areas that the artist intends to remain white or blank are cut away, leaving the original surface level to be inked and pressed onto paper. This technique typically results in bold, graphic lines and high contrast between black and white areas.

^{Ecce Homo (c.1499), from the series The Large Passion, Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528), woodcut, 39x29cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington.}